CONCEPT: Fibres
The hairs of the sheep for making wool, are known as Fleece. Wool is an insulating substance as it does not allow the conduction of heat through it so is used to keep us warm during winters. There are various types of wool like Angora wool extracted from Angora goats, Pashmina shawls obtained from Kashmiri goat, Yak wool found in Tibet and Ladakh, Llama and Alpaca, found in South America.
The selection of the sheep is an important process as the sheep bearing thick soft wool are generally preferred and are cross bred among themselves to get their best offspring. This is known as Selective Breeding. The selected sheep are reared, given grasses, jowar, oil cakes and corns for their growth and nutrition. Next step is to extract the fleece from the sheep. It is the shaving up of the hairs from the sheep and the yaks, which removes the outer thin skin from the body. It is known as Shearing. The sheared fleece is then washed to remove the dust and oils in it, it is known as Scouring. The fibers of different types are separated accordingly to be sent to the factories. This separation process is known as Sorting. It should be kept in mind that burrs(small fluffy fibers) should be totally removed from the materials. The fibers then are colored in different dyes as it gives them colorful appearance. The fibers are then strengthened and rolled to make yarn. From the longer fiber, wool is made, and shorter ones are used to make Woolen clothes. The disease common in this profession is known as Anthrax caused by a bacterium found in the sheep and yaks.
Silk is obtained from Silkworm by the process known as Sericulture. Silk was discovered in China. The silkworm has different stages of life. As the female worm lay eggs, those get further converted into larvae then to pupa. The pupa secretes some portentous substances to hold itself in the plant which is soft initially but further hardens as thread when in contact with air, it is the actual raw silk. This stage is known as Cocoon. Later it matures into complete moth. There are many varieties of silk like mulberry silk, tassar silk, eri silk, moonga silk etc.
The rearing of silkworm starts as the female worm lay hundreds of eggs on the mulberry leaves which are commercially sold to the farmers. The farmers buy them and maintain hygiene with adequate temperature. Then the eggs coverts into larva. The larva is fed day and night in the bamboo tray laid by mulberry leaves to increase their size. Then the larva converts into cocoon secreting the Silk Fibers. These cocoons are sundried or boiled which help in taking out of silk threads from them. This process is known as Reeling of silk. The fibers are then woven into silk threads and further into cloths by the weavers.
CONCEPT: Forest
Forest is a huge area having numerous trees in it. The trees having bigger branches making the top portion of the tree is known as Crown . Numbers of Crown at the top circumscribe a Canopy. The bottom portion of a canopy of a forest is known as Understorey. A series of organisms in different layers, one being dependent on the other for nutrition is known as Food Chain.
Example, Grass→ Goat →Human → Tiger → Vulture.
When more than two food chain interlink amongst themselves, they make Food Web.
Sun is the ultimate source of energy. That energy is utilized by the plants for photosynthesis. Plants make food by it and are so called Producers.
Animals who eats grass, plants are called Herbivorous animals.
The animals who eats herbivorous animals are called Primary Carnivorous animals.
When a carnivorous animal eats the other it is called Secondary Carnivorous animals. And the latter is known as Tertiary Carnivorous animals.
Humans eats both plants and animals so are regarded as Omnivore.
When plants and even animals die, they are decomposed i.e. converted into simpler form by the Decomposers like, Mushroom, other fungi, for their nutrition and also for enriching the quality of the soil. This results in the formation of dark black colored Humus in the soil.
The forest helps in protecting our nature as the trees in the forest holds water and prevents Soil Erosion, i.e. washing away of topsoil. But the gradual increase of deforestation due to construction of roads, buildings, dams, there is huge cutting of forest trees. This increases the level of pollution. The trees take up the CO2 from the atmosphere and provide us fresh Oxygen. Deforestation increases the chance of flood. Further, the animals and birds are losing their shelter to live. Trees maintain the Water cycle and climatic balance of the nature.
CONCEPT: Nutrition in Animals
The process of intake of complex food and further conversion into the simpler form so that our body can use it to make energy is known as Digestion. The process of digestion involves organs including the buccal cavity, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine ending in the rectum. Anus is used for excretion. These complex set of organelles makes up a canal known as Alimentary canal or Digestive tract.
The intake of food by the mouth is known as Ingestion. The mouth having buccal cavity has teeth that is used for tearing of food. Tongue is used for proper mixing of food with the Saliva secreted by Salivary gland. It converts the Starch present in the food into simple sugars. The food then passes to the esophagus which is also known as food pipe that connects the mouth to stomach. When the food in not accepted into the stomach, it is sent back in form of Vomit. The stomach is a U-shaped organ which has a bag like appearance. It is lined inside by a mucous layer which protects the stomach from the acidic HCL present in the stomach. Acid kills the bacteria coming inside the food. Stomach also contains protein digesting juice which converts protein into amino acids. The food then enters the small intestine ,which is approx. 7.5 m long (it is longer in Herbivorous animals). The liver, the largest gland, secretes Bile juice which is used for breaking down of fats into soluble forms. The bile is stored in Gall bladder, which is a sac like organ. The Pancreas , located below the stomach, secretes Pancreatic juice which digests carbohydrates and proteins into simpler forms. The small intestine is having finger like appendages in their surfaces known as Villi , which absorbs simpler compounds and transports it into the blood. The blood carries it to different organs where they are used to synthesize proteins and other compounds required for the function of the body .This process is known as Assimilation. The remaining undigested food is sent into the Large Intestine where the maximum Absorption of the water, salts and minerals takes place. The rest comes out as fecal in the semi-solid form through the Anus. This process is known as Egestion. The intake of intoxicated food causes watery stool. This condition is known as Diarrhoea. Oral Rehydration Solution i.e. uptake of large quantity of sterile water with a pinch of salt and sugar is the solution to this problem.
Cows and Buffalos have a special stomach known as Rumen where they store the partially digested food known as Cud. The Cud is again taken back to the mouth from the Rumen and then the complete digestion happens. This process is known as Rumination and animals are called Ruminants. They have special enzymes in their stomach which can digest cellulose, so they can digest grass. Humans lack cellulose digesting enzymes.
Amoeba is a unicellular organism which has a dense nucleus and a cytoplasm which contains the digestive enzymes. It has a Pseudopodia which is finger-like projections used for the trapping of food. Food gets enclosed in a vacuole known as Food vacuole. It secretes the digestive enzymes in it to break the food into simpler form and then gets nutrition from it.
CONCEPT: Nutrition
The way of taking in food by the organisms for performing of cellular processes is called Nutrition. There are mainly two types of Nutrition i.e. Autotrophic Nutrition and Heterotrophic Nutrition. Autotrophic Nutrition is generally seen in Green plants i.e. they use the sunlight as the energy source to make their food themselves. The process in with the plants absorb the Sunlight and CO2 from the atmosphere by the leaves and make Glucose and O2 as a product of the reaction is called Photosynthesis.Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of the plant. Chlorophyll is the pigment which is responsible for the leaves to be green and the absorption of the sunlight. CO2 is taken in by the plants by pores in the leaves known as Stomata. Further, the glucose formed by the process of photosynthesis is stored in the form of Starch in the plant. We can see the concentration of the starch by adding Iodine (Iodine reacts with starch to give blue color). The non-green leaves also have some portion of the chlorophyll pigments which is masked by the other pigments. Algae are the minute plant like organisms which has greenly appearance as it as has chlorophyll in it and performs photosynthesis.
The other mode of nutrition is the Heterotrophic nutrition. In this process, organisms cannot synthesize their own food and depends on others for food. Example, Humans and Animals. The Insectivorous plants are plants which have developed leaves and has an extra opening which is used to trap insects. These plants have digestive juices in it to absorb the nutrition from the insect. Example, Pitcher plant.
Heterotrophic nutrition has further variations i.e. Parasitic Nutrition and Saprophytic Nutrition. The process in which one organism depends on other for food & shelter is called Parasitic Nutrition. The main plant is the Host plant, on which the parasitic plant or the Guest plant gets attached to get nutrition or other benefits. The host plant is deprived of it. Example, Cuscuta (Amarbel).
Saprophytic Nutrition – It is the type of nutrition in which organism derive their nutrition from the dead and decayed plants and animals by releasing digestive enzymes. The organism using Saprophytic nutrition are known as Saprotrophs. Example, Mushroom, other Fungi etc.
When two organisms live together and benefit from each other, it is known as Symbiotic Association. Fungi and Algae from Lichen i.e. Algae providing nutrients to fungi and fungi providing shelter.
The roots of leguminous plants i.e. Pulses, Pea plant having root in association with some Nitrogen fixing organisms example, Rhizobium which takes nutrients from the plant and supplies Nitrogen to it as it cannot take the atmospheric Nitrogen. Farmers
supply nitrogenous fertilizers to the field to cope up with the Nitrogen demand of the plants.
CONCEPT: Reproduction
Reproduction is the development of offspring from the parent organism. Reproduction is of 2 types i.e. Uni-parental , Asexual Reproduction and Bi-parental, Sexual Reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction- is a process in which single parent gives rise two new individuals of similar kind without any seed. It is further divided into many types i.e.
Vegetative propagation : The development of the full plant takes place from the vegetative organs of the plant i.e. Stem, leaves. Bryophyllum is a plant that generally shows this type of specialized reproduction i.e. it bears buds at its leaf lining so when the leave fall on the soil it later develops into a whole Bryophyllum plant.
Budding: The process in which an organism forms a bulged outgrowth which further disassociates from the parent organism and forms independent individual. It is generally seen in Hydra, Yeast etc.
Fragmentation: It is a process in which a basic multi-cellular organism like Spirogyra is broken down into fragments upon maturation and these fragments further result in formation of a complete organism.
Spore formation : It is greatly seen in fungi such as Rhizopus. The fungi develop mesh like structure at the base known as Hypae and develops spores covered by a protection layer. During the arrival of the favourable condition, the cover bursts and releases the spores which later forms a new plant.
Sexual Reproduction- This type requires 2 parent, one male and the other female. Stamen is said to be the male part of the flower and Pistil is said to be the female part of the flower. When the male and the female part of a flower are present in different flower it is called Unisexual Flower. Example, Papaya and Cucumber. When the male and the female part of a flower are present in a single flower it is called Bi-sexual Flower. Example, Rose and Petunia. The Stamen produces pollen grains which contain the male gamete. Pistil contains ovary which has the egg cell of the plant. The male and the female gametes fuse to form Zygote, which further develops into Embryo.
Pollination- It is the process of transfer of pollens from a stamen to a pistil. Pollination is of two types i.e. Self- Pollination and Cross Pollination. Self- Pollination- It is a process in which pollen reaches the pistil of the same flower. Cross Pollination is a process in which pollen transfers to other flower either of the same plant or in some other plant.
The ovary later develops into fruit and the ovule into the seed, which is covered by a seed coat. These seeds are further taken away by animals (Xanthium and Urena seeds), wind (drumstick and maple seeds), water (coconut) to distant land and plant
develops in distant areas. This is known as Dispersal of Seed. Some seeds get dispersed by busting up of fruits as is seen in castor and balsam.
CONCEPT: Respiration
Respiration is a process in which the food is broken down to get energy. This process can take place in the presence of oxygen and even in the absence of oxygen. The organisms that break their food in absence of oxygen and produces ethanol and CO2 are known as Anaerobes and the process is known as Anaerobic Respiration. It is generally seen in yeasts. The organisms that break the food in presence of oxygen and yields energy are known as Aerobes. Humans are good example of Aerobes. Some parts of human body i.e. muscle and some organisms can convert the glucose into lactic acid. This happens during excessive exercise in humans when inadequate oxygen reaches the muscles resulting in development of cramps. Applying of hot water and massage gives relief as the area again becomes rich in Oxygen.
Breathing- It is a process of taking in of oxygen rich air from the environment (Inhalation) and giving away of CO2 from the body (Exhalation). Breathing rate is determined as the number of times one breathes per minute i.e. 15–18 times in 1 minute.
The process of breathing starts when one takes in air. Air travels through the nasal cavity through the windpipe to the lungs, which is situated in the Chest cavity. The lungs are surrounded by a case of bones known as Rib cage, which ends at the muscular sheet called Diaphragm. During inhalation, the ribs moves upwards and outwards., and the diaphragm moves downwards. This increases the area for uptake of air. During the exhalation, the ribs moves downwards & inwards and the diaphragm moves upwards reducing the area for the complete removal of air. The inhaled air has 21% oxygen and 0.04% carbon dioxide in lungs and the exhaled air has 4.4% carbon dioxide and 16.4% oxygen in lungs.
Not all organisms have lungs for breathing. Cockroach has Spiracles , which is a single pore used for uptake of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide. Earthworms have slimy skin and they breathe through their skin. Fishes have gills to breathe inside the water as these have blood vessels. Plants have Stomata for the gas exchange i.e. removal of CO2 and water and uptake of O2. All parts of plants can respire individually. The roots of the plants have Air spaces for respiration inside the soil.
Fig :Respiratory System
CONCEPT: Soil
Soil constituents are water, humus, gravel, clay , sand etc. The dead and decayed plants and animals are called Humus. The process of formation of Soil by the action of wind, water etc. is known as Weathering. Soil is divided into different layers, which is known as Soil Profile. Each layer is known as Horizon. The topmost horizon is known as A –Horizon having the topsoil, which is rich in humus and is good for the growth of crop cultivation. It has greater ability to retain water. The next is the B- Horizon which is slightly harder. Then comes the C-Horizon which constitutes the broken rocks. Then comes the compact layer which is full of rocks known as Bedrock.
Soil is divided into various type:
Sandy soil- It which contains larger particles with lesser water holding capacity.
Clayey soil- It is the soil having finer particles in it. It has greater holding capacity and good for specific cultivation.
Loamy soil- It is a soil having both finer and larger particles along with slit (particles having size in between clay and sand) in it. It has excellent water holding capacity with humus content in it. It is excellent for cultivation.
Properties of soil :
Percolation of water – It means the removal of water from the soil. It can be calculated by the formula : Percolation rate (mL/min) = amount of water/ percolation time (min)
Moisture in soil – It is the water absorbed by the soil which comes up as vapor during the summer seasons. You can see water vapors when soil gets heated.
Absorption of water by soil – It is the retention capacity of the soil. It can be calculated by (Initial volume of water – Final volume of water)/ Weight of soil.
Different types of crops grow in different types of soil. Paddy & Wheat grow best in clay soil which are rich in organic matter. Loamy soil is excellent for cotton, lentils (masoor) and other pulses as it can drain water easily.
The removal of layers of soil by wind or air is known as Soil erosion. It is caused by Deforestation i.e. cutting up of trees, building up of roads and buildings etc.
Transportation in Plants and Animals
Transportation in animals:
The liquid portion of the blood is known as Plasma. Blood comprises of Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells, Platelets and Plasma. RBC is used for transportation of Oxygen throughout the body and the WBC is used to fight against infection. Platelets are responsible for the clotting factor of the blood. The blood transportation is carried out through blood vessels. It comprises of Arteries and Veins. The arteries are connected through capillaries to the veins.
Arteries bring oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all parts of the body and Veins bring the deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body to the heart.
Valves are present in different locations of heart and in the vessels to prevent the back flow of the heart. In normal individual the heart beats 72 and 80 beats per minute. These muscles of the heart wall contract and relax rhythmically which gives the lub-dub sound of the heart. The blood flowing through arteries give a measure of beating heart and are known as Pulse rate which is similar to the heart rate.
Heart is made up of cardiac muscle which is situated slightly left from the central position. It is of same size to that of your fist. It has four chambers, separated by a septum to prevent the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. The upper two chambers are auricles and the bottoms two are ventricles. The blood enters through the auricles and leave through the ventricles.
Excretion is the process of removing the waste products from the body. The organs responsible for the function of removing wastes are known as Excretory System. Kidney, Uterus, Urinary Bladder, Urethra comprises the excretory system. The waste in the liquid form is known as urine which has concentration of waste products. The kidneys are responsible for filtration after which it enters the bladder. When the bladder is full, it comes out from the urethra. 1–1.8 L of urine is formed in 24 hours. The urine consists of 95% water, 2.5 % urea and 2.5% other waste products in normal individual.
Transportation in plants:
Transportation in plants takes place with the xylem and the phloem, which comprises of the vascular bundles of the plant. Xylem is used for the transportation of water and minerals and is said to be dead as it comprises of Xylem vessels, Xylem fibres, tracheids and Xylem parenchyma (only living tissue ).
Phloem comprises of the living cells i. e. Companion cells, sieve tube, Phloem parenchyma and Phloem fibres (only dead tissue). It is responsible for carrying nutrients throughout the plant from the leaves, which is known as Translocation.
Transpiration- This is the removal of water from the leaves through the stomatal opening; this creates a pull upwards and is responsible for transportation of water from root.
Wastewater Story
The water discarded from the kitchen wastage, bathing, factory and industrial waste; agricultural fields are said to be the wastewater. The liquid portion of the waste is known as Sewage. The dissolved constituents are known as Contaminants.
The contaminants constituents include Organic impurities- Human and animal faeces, oil, urine, vegetable waste, Inorganic impurities – Nitrates, Phosphates, Nitrogen, Bacteria – cholera, botulinum etc. The pipelines make the Sewers, forming a complex network known as Sewerage.
Treatment is done by removing the solid large waste from the Wastewater. The sewage is aerated by providing air in the whole wastewater. Then the Filtration is done, i.e. the waste is filtered by a filter member which is porous in nature. Lastly, Chlorination is done i.e. Chlorine tables are added in limited quantities to make it drinkable.
Wastewater treatment plant
The wastewater is passed through a screen to remove the larger wastes like plastic bags and bottles.
Later the grit and sand are settled at bottom and the suspended water can be removed.
Scraper is used to separate the settled solid and the skimmer is used to remove the flooring solid materials. The water received is called clarified water.
The slide uncompresses the solid waste, which is sent to a decomposer. It has a microwave which converts them into simpler compound. which can be used to generate biogas and even as compost in agricultural fields. When earthworms are added in the compost is called Vermi-Compost.
The air is passed in the digested to increase the growth of aerobic organisms. Later, the water which is 97% of the activated sludge is removed , filtered and treated later. The microbes and the heavier waste settle at the bottom.
Now the water is non-toxic and can be send to water bodies.
Fats and oils shouldn’t be thrown in the drains which blocks the passage of water flow. Paints, medicines etc. shouldn’t be thrown in the drain which hampers the growth of useful microorganisms.
Onsite sewage like septic tanks, toilets, composting pits should be constructed to manage a proper sanitation and sewage treating process.
Weather, Climate and Adaptation:
The condition of the area comprising of temperature change, rainfall, humidity in a day is known as Weather of the place. The Meteorological Department is responsible to track the changes in the places and give the weather forecast of the regions. The Climate of a place is the weather condition of a place for a long period of time. Thermometers are used to measure the temperature. In India, Rajasthan has a hot and dry climatic condition and North-east has wet conditions. Further, the climatic condition varies throughout the world. The poles (North and South) have cold conditions covering countries like Canada, Alaska, Finland, Iceland etc. Some countries have wet and marshy climatic condition, such as Brazil.
Polar regions:
Polar regions include the pole of the earth, North and the South pole. It is having 6 months day and 6 months night. It has a temperature of below -25 degree Celsius and is full of snow. Organisms living in this region are Polar bear and Penguins. They have two thick fur in their body, which protects them from lower temperature. They have long curved and sharp claw which helps them to walk in ice. The fat in their body acts as insulator in this harsh cold condition. The white fur acts as a camouflage, which helps them catch prey. They have streamlined body and web feet, which makes them excellent swimmers. The organisms include musk, whales, seal, reindeers etc.
Migratory birds, fishes move to the warmer land during the winter seasons, for their survival and food. Example, Siberian Crane. They follow direction by the earth magnetic field; sun during the day and stars during the night helps them guide their direction.
Tropical rainforest:
Tropical rainforest has a temperature of about 15-40 degree Celsius as it has the location near the equator. The days and the nights are of equal length with higher rainfall. Western Ghats of India, Brazil, Central America and Central Africa are the regions having Tropical rainforest. Organisms like, Apes, Gorilla, Lizard, Tigers, Elephants are generally found in these regions. These regions have huge number of organisms . Organisms have evolved itself for their adaptation. Lions & tigers have sensitive hearing. Elephants have long ears, which helps them to protect against predators. Lion tailed macaque also known as Beard ape is a good climber. It feeds on leaves and fruits.
